Hoard storiesBy Tom BuijtendorpCoin hoards tell an interesting story about the development of ancient coinage. Even when the find spot is unknown, the coins still provide useful information, as some hoard coins from the trade illustrate. When sold via internet interesting details and photos are available. And some dealers more and more describe the hoards as group, especially hoards from the UK, a development that should be supported. Clearly, a controlled excavation remains the preferred option, but there will always be accidental finds (next to destructive looting of known sites).Hoard DescriptionsDescriptions of hoards in many cases try to reconstruct how a hoard was composed before being buried, and what the reason for the burial was. Reasons for burial can be the classical hoarding for long term saving. It can however also be an emergency burial to get the money away from sudden violence. Or there can be an accident like a fire or the loss of for example a purse. The way hoards have been composed before burial may differ as well. In so called circulation hoards, the coins have been taken from coin circulation in a brief period of time like the content of a lost purse, or the repayment of a loan. It can also be an accumulated hoard saved step by step, for example.This kind of categorizations in many cases oversimplifies the background of hoards. There are for example composite hoards like a combination of a purse recently added to a savings hoard. And somebody may have received a salary paid from a savings hoard and carry it in a purse. As long as these potential complications are clear, it still helps to understand the different possible compositions of coin hoards.In this article, examples from the trade will be discussed. The overview starts with some hoards with more information about their burial circumstances. Then other hoards will be discussed in chronological order to illustrate the historical importance. Some hoards are described in some more detail in the NumisWiki articles listed at the end of this article.DepositionFig 1. Aureus of Tiberius (14-37 CE) of the Boscoreale hoard with the characteristic deep reddish toning, minted in the last years of his reign in Lyon. Obverse TI CAESAR DIVI AVG F AVGVSTVS, laureate head right, laurel wreath ties fall in small undulations (waves); reverse PONTIF MAXIM, Pax (or Livia as Pax) seated right on chair with decorated legs, a single line below, long scepter vertical behind in her right, branch in left, feet on footstool. Weight 7.709 gram, maximum diameter 19 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SH30618. Fig. 2. Denarius of Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) of the Forum Fire Hoard with a wavy fire damaged, bent flan. Minted 134-138 CE in Rome. Obverse HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P, bare head right; reverse MONETA AVG, Moneta standing left holding scales and cornucopia; Weight 3.378 gram, maximum diameter 16.7 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. RS15011. Fig. 3. Two denarii of Elagabalus (218-222 CE) and one Severus Alexander(222-235 CE), uncleaned as found in a sealed container with green patina. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT36716.Regarding deposition circumstances, the Boscoreale hoard is a famous example. The hoard of more then thousand golden aurei was discovered in 1895 in a villa close to Pompeii. The owner buried the hoard in 79 CE in a water cistern in the wine cellar, fearing the warning sound of the Vesuvius shortly before the eruption. The intense heat of the eruption gave the coins the famous deep reddish Boscoreale patina. Unfortunately, the hoard was dispersed without being catalogued. Thanks to the typical patina, some coins are still known and incidentally offered for sale (fig 1). Another example is a burned hoard of mainly denarii, concealed around 225 CE and described in a separate NumisWiki article (the Forum Fire Hoard). The coins were found in an amalgamation: melted coins and black silver oxide on the outside formed a solid black ball. Inside the coins were still in nice condition, however, most are wavy and somewhat brittle due to the heat of the fire. About 3/4 of the 92 catalogued coins show clear traces of the fire, in many cases with a bent flan (fig 2). Another example with some indication of the burial are three denarii from the same period with a green hoard container patina (fig 3.). In most cases, for hoards from the trade, the only link to the burial circumstances are political circumstances related to the minting period of the youngest coin. As the examples show, this offers a numismatic history, here presented in a chronological sequence. Hoards Tell the StoryFig 4. The latest coin of Antiochus XII (87-84 BCE) of the Galilee hoard, a bronze hemichalkon minted in Damascus. Obverse diademed, bearded head of Antiochos XII right; reverse BASILEWS ANTIOC DIONUSO EPIFANOUS FILOPATOROS KALLINIKOU, Nike walking right, wreath in extended right, palm frond over shoulder in left, monogram in exergue. Weight 3.345 gram, maximum diameter 16.9 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. GB46336.Political unrest is an important reason for the existence of coin hoards. At the first place, it is an extra reason to bury the coins. And in addition, the owner may get killed and as a result not being able to recollect the hoard. For the same reason, a lost purse will not be searched after by the owner. A possible example is the Galilee hoard buried end 84 BCE or a little later, reported to be found North of lake Galilee, what fits the surrounding location of the nine mints represented in the hoard. The hoard was probably buried following the unrest after the defeat of Antiochus XII, the last strong Seleucid ruler. There were 131 bronze coins, of which 118 could be identified by Alex Malloy who acquired the hoard in 1989. The coins represent the leaders who played a role in the struggle. There were coins minted for Antiochus XII Dionysus (c. 87 – 84 BCE) who ruled the last Seleucid realm in and around Damascus. His youngest hoard coin was minted late 84 BCE in Damascus just before he was killed in a fight against the Nabataeans, rulers from current Jordan who shortly after captured Damascus. One coin of Aretas III (87 – 62 BCE) is minted in Damascus right after the city was captured. Antiochus XII also did fight against the Judean kingdom in the south, and eight prutot of their ruler Alexander Jannaeus (103 – 76 BCE) minted in Jerusalem are present in the hoard. In addition, coins of earlier rulers are present like 27 coins of Demetrius III Eucaerus (96 – 87 BCE), 8 coins of Antiochus VII Grypus (125-96 BCE) and some even older coins of Demetrius II Nikator (136-129 BCE), Antiochus VII Sidetes (138-129 BCE) and Demetrius I Soter (162- 150 BCE). The oldest coins of Antiochus III the Great (223 – 187 BCE) minted in Antioch were more than a century old when the hoard was buried. The reported find spot is about half way of the two major mints (64% of the hoard) of Damascus and Akko, the harbor on the shore of the Mediterranean see. On the same shore are mints represented in Tyre, Biblos, Sidon (all current Lebanon) and Seleucia (Syrian coast). In addition, there are coins from Damascus, Antioch, Jerusalem and the Nabataean capital Petra. The total monetary value of the 131 coins was relatively small. Fig 5. A sample of 21 lead tesserae of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) of a somewhat larger hoard of more then thirty of such coins (check). All of Hendin type 1155. Obverse text BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), anchor upside-down inside circle; reverse Aramaic inscription, King Alexander, border of dots. In most cases, the reverse is fully worn. Offered by Forum Ancient Coins nr. JD11176 (see also LT36982, LT3567?)The Jewish leader Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) mentioned above, minted around 80 BCE rare lead tokens (tesserae). They were issued to the poor to be redeemed for food and other commodities, mirroring the Roman distribution system. Alexander in this way hoped to gain support in his political struggle. These tesserae were for a long time very rare and not very well known. Thanks to some recent hoards, the knowledge of these interesting items has improved. Some have a dessert patina as the example shown of a group of lead tesserae from the same source (fig 5). The obverse shows in a circle an anchor upside down as hanging on the side of a boat, with around in Greek the legend BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (Basileus Alexandrou = of King Alexander). The anchor became an important symbol after Alexander Jannaeus conquered some of the coastal cities. The reverse, in many cases blank now, originally contained the Aramaic text ‘King Alexander’ in three lines. Fig 6. A group of 60 widow mites with a common shining green, pickled patina indicating the provenance of the same hoard. Introduced by Alexander Jannaeus around 78 BCE. Obverse star of eight rays surrounded by diadem, crude barbaric style; reverse BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (barbaric and blundered), anchor upside-down in circle. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins lot nr. LT56705.In the same period, around 78 BCE, Alexander Jannaeus (103 – 76 BCE) started in Jerusalem to mint very small coins, the leptons. They became known as the ‘widow mites’ because these small coins may have been referred to in the New Testament (the story of the poor widow and here small money gift to the temple, Mark 12:41). The obverse legend refers to year 25 of the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, meaning they were minted around 78 BCE. Many are found in large hoards (fig 6). Based on the high volumes, it has been suggested that minting continued during the reign of his wife and successor Salome Alexandra (76-67 BCE). She did not mint coins in her own name, so continuation of the coins of her husband makes sense. It could explain the large volumes, making this small coin still a very important part of the small change in the first century CE, explaining why many of these coins are quite worn. The obverse shows a star of eight rays surrounded by a diadem. The crude Aramaic obverse legend refers to King Alexander and year 25. The crude reverse like the tesserae shows an anchor upside down, again with the name of the king and sometimes with the year (L) 25 (KE) near the anchor points. Many have irregular flans and in many times are off centered, sign of large volume minting. Also the old ‘bridges’ of the casted row of flans are still clearly visible at one or two sides. They still circulated in the first century CE and even occasionally in the 4th century as shown by excavations. Fig 7. A Group of 20 Republican denarii, all of the common type with a bust on the obverse and a car with horses on the reverse, and the name of the moneyer, in this case for example D. Unius Silanus (D. SILANVS), C. Licinius LF Macer (C. LICINIVS LF MACER) and twice M. Lucilis Rufus (M. LVCILI RVF), in some cases ROMA below. This type was minted until 41 BCE. The three moneyers mentioned worked between 101 and 84 BCE. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT54755. Fig. 8. A local imitation of a denarius of Tiberius from a coin hoard form India. On the obverse blundered reading of CAESAR DVI AVG F AVGVSTVS as TILLFSLRIVIAVCFAVGVSTVS. Reverse blundered reading of PONTIF MAXIM as ONIIF MANIM. Weight 3.008 gram, max diameter 18.2 mm, die-axis 180, sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SH20732. The bronze coin hoards were of much lower value than most of the Republican silver hoards of denarii (fig 7). These silver hoards are very important for the dating of the moneyers who worked in specific years. For the hoard coins shown in fig 7 for example, moneyer Lucilius worked in 101 BCE, Silanus in 91 BCE and Licinius Macer in 84 BCE. Thanks to hoard evidence, combined with sequences deducted from overstrikes, it is possible to date the introduction of the denarius to around 211 BCE. During the first century BCE, the denarius was the main high value hoard coin. Sulla introduced the golden aureus around 85 BCE, but only Caesar started to mint some larger volumes. The denarius was also used for long distance trade, even outside the empire. An interesting example is a coin hoard from India described in a separate NumisWiki article (Triton X Hoard). Among the 175 Roman denarii of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) and Tiberius (14 – 17 CE) the hoard contained some local imitations (fig 8). The Roman denarii were in India appreciated for their high silver content. The Roman looks of the coins functioning as a kind of quality stamp.
Fig 12. Lot of 81 small bronze coins, part of a hoard found at Cyprus. Selected from a hoard of more than 250 coins, these 81 coins are all the same type. Fair to Fine and minted around 35 BCE in the mint of Paphos. Obverse laureate head of Zeus; reverse statue of Zeus Salaminos standing, holding stalks of grain, star above. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins lot nr. LT38166. Also lot nr. LT33637 (7 coins), LT33638 (20 coins), LT38164 (80 coins), LT53846 (10 coins), LT57290 (14 coins), GB33634 (20 coins) and coins sold single.Another interesting coin hoard was found on the isle of Cyprus (fig 12). The hoard may be connected to the unrest around the defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium in September 31 BCE. Cyprus was ruled by Cleopatra until 31 BC when the Romans took over. More than 250 small copper coins seem to have been found together and are dated between 50 and 30 BCE. They have been produced in the mint of Paphos, the later Roman capital of the isle. As noted in a separate NumisWiki article about misstrikes, the hoard contained some blank flans. There is some debate about the names of the small coins. The hoard contained amongst others very small bronze coins of about 0.8 gram and only 8 mm in diameter. This may be the chalkon mentioned in old sources, the smallest unit of the Ptolemaic kingdom. On the obverse there is a bust of Isis and on the reverse an eagle or a double cornucopia flanked by ribbons. For both types, there is a reference to King Ptolemy: PTOLEMAIOU - BASILEWS. The same coins are also minted with about the double weight and diameter of around 12 mm, what may have been the dichalkon (double chalkon) Of these coins, there also is a type with on the obverse the laureate head of Zeus to the right, and a reverse with Zeus Salaminos standing, holding a grain ear and a torch, with a star above. Kreuzer has suggested that the bust of Isis refers to the famous queen Cleopatra (Cleopatra VIII), but this identification is matter of debate. Fig. 13 Six coins of the Temple Tax Hoard. Described in a separate NumisWiki article. Another important moment for the burial of coin hoards is the unrest during the 60s of the first century CE. Already in 66 CE the Jewish revolt started and continued until 73 CE. And in 68 CE Nero was forced to commit suicide. After, four emperors reigned in about one year. The Jewish War resulted in many local coin hoards. Possibly the Temple Tax Hoard was buried during this period (fig 13). This hoard consisted of 92 silver half shekels and 3 full shekels and has been described in a separate NumisWiki article by Marian and Sermarini. Although the youngest dated coin was minted in 55/57 CE, it is very well possible that the hoard was buried during the Jewish War about ten years later. Dated coins of the last decade are very rare and most coins of the hoard are worn, also the youngest dated one. As the half shekel was used to pay the temple tax, the hoard may be related to the annual payment of the temple tax. Fig 14. Eight cleaned billion tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard, minted in Alexandria in several different years like LIA (year 11 = 64/65 CE), LIB (year 12 = 65/66 CE), LIG (year 13 = 66/67 CE) and L ID (year 14, = 67/78 CE). Three reverse with eagle, two reverses with Tiberius and three reverse with bust of a Greek deity issued to commemorate Nero's sojourn in Greece in 67 - 68 A.D. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT28817. Fig 15. Seventeen billion tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard, all minted in the peak year 12 (65/66 CE) minted in Alexandria. Obverse NERW KLAU KAIS SEB GER, radiate bust of Nero right, wearing aegis; reverse AUTO-KRA, bust of Alexandria right, wearing elephant head headdress, L IB (year 12) Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SP22458. Fig 16. Ten tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard with coins from Claudius to Vespasian (45-70 CE), these ten coins all minted in year 11 (64/65 CE) in Alexandria. Obverse NERW KLAU KAIS SEB GER, radiate bust of Nero right, wearing aegis; reverse AUTO-KRA, eagle standing left, palm over shoulder, L IA (year 11) right, sometimes with simpulum behind. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SP22459. About 60 other coins with the same patina sold individually nr. RX 22938-RX23003.The Civil War after the dead of Nero in June 68 CE impacted large parts of the empire, also at places where no direct fights occurred. An example is Roman Egypt, a province which from numismatic perspective acted almost as an autonomous monetary region, a closed currency system. The tetradrachms minted in Alexandria circulated mainly within Egypt and most known hoards are found within the borders of this country. Christiansen, who described the Egyptian hoards from the 1-3rd century CE, concluded that most hoards were related to a few moments of political unrest. The first hoard period was 68-69 CE. Although there was no war in Egypt, it was an important home base for Vespasian, the later emperor. Apparently people felt the need to burry money. And quite some people like soldiers left Egypt to participate in the war for Vespasian, and never returned to retrieve their hoard. Just before, Nero minted a large volume of tetradrachms from 63 CE onwards, with a production peak in 65/66 CE (year 12). As a result, Egyptian coin hoards related to the Civil War of 68-69 CE, contain only or for a large part tetradrachms of Nero. A probably example is a lot of eight cleaned tetradrachms of Nero minted in Alexandria (fig 14). Another example is a group of 17 tetradrachms, all of the peak year 12 (fig 15). A hoard with a typical grey patina with in many cases light pickled corrosion is typical for these hoards (fig 16). About 70 coins of this hoard are catalogued and most are tetradrachms of Nero. One coin is an older tetradrachm of Claudius minted in year 6 (45-46 CE). And about ten coins are minted during the Civil War by Galba and Vespasian. It is a typical pattern for Egyptian hoards form this period.
In the next decades, fights related to the extension of the Roman Empire continued. An example is the Balkan. Very worn bronze coins were countermarked to continue their lives. Interesting is a small group of eleven Flavian bronze coins countermarked with the letter B and the letters TOM (fig 17). The last combination is interpreted as the abbreviation of Tomis, the Roman city at Constanta in Romania on the Black Sea shore
Fig 19 Four Republican misstrikes (brockages), from the Moesia hoard buried around 107 CE in the Balkan. Denarii of Cn. Cornelius Blasio Cn.f., 112 - 111 BCE (#1, 3.34 gram, 18.1 mm), Lucius Memmius c. 109 - 108 BCE (#2, 3.40 gram, 19.1 mm), L. Thorius Balbus, 105 BCE (#3, 3.00 gram, 18.5 mm) and Octavian, 21-31 BCE (#4, 3.48 gram, 19.3 mm). Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr RR08296 (#1), RR08295 (#2), RR08300 (#3) and RR08318 (#4).
The next import reform of the denarius is reflected in another hoard. The monetary reform of Septimius Severus in 194/195 CE started a process of accelerated debasement. The weight was temporarily reduced in the period 194-196 CE, reflected in a smaller size of the flans as the Forum Fire Hoard illustrates, discussed in a separate Numiswiki article (fig 2). The average maximum diameter of the 89 denarii in the Forum Fire Hoard (besides the 3 antoninianii) was 18.64 mm. The maximum diameter for the two hoard denarii of Septimius Severus minted between 194-196 CE was 7 to 11% less: 17.3 and 16.5 mm. The diameter was increased again after 196 CE. However the flans became thinner and the silver content was further reduced from still close to 80% in the early days of Septimius Severus to about 56.5% in his last years, meaning that the weight of the amount of silver in a denarius decreased about 1/4th. As a result, older coins were hoarded and the new coins of Septimius Severus quickly started to dominate the coin circulation. A lot of about 150 denarii may reflect this situation at the end of the second century CE (fig 24). The lot contains mainly denarii minted between 193-198 CE.
Fig 26. The cover photo of the Antioch Hoard of Gallienus, catalogue of Alex Malloy (1992). A large part of the hoard was later sold by Forum Ancient Coins.
This dominant role of the antoninianus is also reflected in the Gallienus Hoard of Antioch described in a separate NumisWiki article (fig 26). This hoard of 539 antoniniani was buried in 274 CE or shortly after. It most probably was a composite hoard buried in the neighborhood of Antioch. The composition of the first part of the hoard started around 253 CE in Viminacium, a town close to Kostolac in Serbia, and continued until about 257-260 CE. Around that time, the money moved to the region of Antioch where the accumulation continued. Already the first part collected around 253-260 CE consisted of antoniniani only. Clearly, at that time, most denarii were forced out of circulation. The hoard offered interesting information about the minting of regional antoniniani in a mint close to Antioch. The closing date of 274 CE was related to the political unrest that threatened the Roman Empire. Another product of this landmark in Roman history is the Braithwell hoard of 1,331 antoniniani unearthed in 2002 in the UK. An Antoninianus of Gallienus (253-268 CE) of this hoard shows how this coin became a bronze core with a very thin layer silver (fig 27). The silver content was reduced to about 5% compared to around 40% in the middle of the third century CE. Two younger antoniniani of the Romano Gallic emperors Victorinus (269-271 CE) and Tetricus (271-273 CE) show how the antoninianus deteriorated further to a silver content below 2.5% (fig 28). The Roman emperor Aurelian (270 – 275 CE) at first stage continued to mint weak antoniniani of about 2.5% silver and an average weight of about 2.8 gram. His first aim was reuniting the Roman Empire. He faced the independent part in the west (Romano Gallic Empire) and also an independent part in the east. He first gained control over the eastern part and next in 274 CE defeated Tetricus and his son in the west. Aurelian was proclaimed Restitutor Orbis (restorer of the world) and launched his monetary reform in 274 CE. He introduced a new improved antoninianus, by some authors called ‘Aurelianus’: a coin of about 3.85 gram and about 4% silver content. It has been suggested that the new aimed silver content is indicated with the number XXI on the reverse (KA = 21 in Greek versions): XX parts bronze versus I part silver: a silver content of 1/21st (4.75%).
In 294 CE, the silver argenteus was introduced. This silver laureate coin was an imitation of the old denarius. As other coins at that time hardly contained any silver, these new silver coins were quickly hoarded as the Sisak hoard illustrates. This hoard was discovered in 1953 in Siscia (Sisak in Serbia) together with silver vessels. Unfortunately, this very important hoard was dispersed before being catalogued. Until this find, the silver coins of this period were very rare and the hoard contained one single type. All hoard coins show the bust of one of the four co-rulers (tetrarchs) on the obverse and the praetorian camp on the reverse (fig 35). And the patina of the hoard coins was quite characteristic with a special rainbow iridescent toning. As a result, Jelocnik succeeded in reconstructing a large part of the hoard. In 1961 he published a catalogue of 1415 of the hoard coins (142 with photos’), estimated to be about 2/3rd of the total hoard. The hoard analysis is still the standard work for this numismatically important silver coin, summarized in RIC volume VI. About 1/3th (37.7%) of the hoard coins was minted in Siscia, another 1/3th (37.4%) was minted in Rome and close to 1/4th in Ticinum (Pavia in Italy). For the rest, a few coins were minted in Heraclea (1%) and Trier (0.3%). The hoard included one ancient imitation. Based on the hoard pattern, Jelocnik concluded the hoard was concealed around 295/296 CE. The coins were very well preserved and only a few showed signs of wear. Of the four coins in fig 33 the average weight is 3.1 gram in a range of 2.969 to 3.417 gram. The average maximum diameter is 18.8 mm, three coins in a small range of 18.1 – 18.5 mm and one much larger with 20.5 mm at a normal weight of 3.007 gram. The coins are beautiful and nicely reflect the failed attempt to revive the old denarius.
The reign of the tetrarchs was a political success. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian retired voluntary, an unique development. The next period would become less stable after the successors started a fight for the power in 306 CE. In 306 CE Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in Rome. He would be finally defeated by Constantine the Great in 312 CE. This period of unrest generated again many coin hoards. In Egypt, for example, Lucius Domitius Alexander, also known as Alexander Tyrannus, declared himself emperor in 308 CE while he was praetorian prefect in Africa. When he stopped the corn supply to Italy, emperor Maxentius (306-312 CE) decided to act and send an army. He took control in 311 CE and usurper Alexander was killed. A hoard of tetradrachms minted in Alexandria and possibly buried around 310 CE may be related to this period of political unrest (fig 36).
During the reform of 294 CE, next to the silver argenteus of the Sisak hoard, also a large bronze coin was introduced. This was the follis of about 10 gram, with about 3% silver and now a laureate head and not a radiate. Started as a heavy coin of about 10 gram, the weight was quickly reduced after 305 CE to just over 3 gram around 317 CE. Around 317 CE again many so called nummi-hoards were buried, this time in reaction to a further deterioration of the monetary system (fig 37). Concluding RemarksIn this way, the coin hoards provide an interesting overview of the development of the monetary system from the first century BCE until the 4th century CE. It is interesting to notice that especially in the UK the number of catalogued coin hoards has increased last decades. The government developed a registration system that motivates finders to report their find and get the coins catalogued before they are dispersed in trade. An example is the Braithwell hoard mentioned in this overview, all coins having reference numbers of the primary catalogue (fig 27-28). Museums get the opportunity to acquire some characteristic examples for future research. As a result, the finder is still rewarded and at the same time important historical information is recorded. For most other countries the description of such hoards depends on the willingness of dealers to spend time on an overall description. As the examples illustrate, this is of great historical interest. There are many more hoard stories to tell. Appendix: Hoards mentioned in this article, described in other NumisWiki articles- The - Braithwell Hoard by Antony Wilson - Antioch Hoard of Gallienus: by A. Malloy, D. W. Sorenson and W. Percical - The Antioch and Braithwell Hoards: a Comparison by Tom Buijtendorp - Triton X Hoard by Tom Buijtendorp - Forum Fire Hoard by Tom Buijtendorp - Hoard coins published in Forum Ancient Coins website catalog: | Hoard storiesBy Tom BuijtendorpCoin hoards tell an interesting story about the development of ancient coinage. Even when the find spot is unknown, the coins still provide useful information, as some hoard coins from the trade illustrate. When sold via internet interesting details and photos are available. And some dealers more and more describe the hoards as group, especially hoards from the UK, a development that should be supported. Clearly, a controlled excavation remains the preferred option, but there will always be accidental finds (next to destructive looting of known sites).Hoard DescriptionsDescriptions of hoards in many cases try to reconstruct how a hoard was composed before being buried, and what the reason for the burial was. Reasons for burial can be the classical hoarding for long term saving. It can however also be an emergency burial to get the money away from sudden violence. Or there can be an accident like a fire or the loss of for example a purse. The way hoards have been composed before burial may differ as well. In so called circulation hoards, the coins have been taken from coin circulation in a brief period of time like the content of a lost purse, or the repayment of a loan. It can also be an accumulated hoard saved step by step, for example.This kind of categorizations in many cases oversimplifies the background of hoards. There are for example composite hoards like a combination of a purse recently added to a savings hoard. And somebody may have received a salary paid from a savings hoard and carry it in a purse. As long as these potential complications are clear, it still helps to understand the different possible compositions of coin hoards.In this article, examples from the trade will be discussed. The overview starts with some hoards with more information about their burial circumstances. Then other hoards will be discussed in chronological order to illustrate the historical importance. Some hoards are described in some more detail in the NumisWiki articles listed at the end of this article.DepositionFig 1. Aureus of Tiberius (14-37 CE) of the Boscoreale hoard with the characteristic deep reddish toning, minted in the last years of his reign in Lyon. Obverse TI CAESAR DIVI AVG F AVGVSTVS, laureate head right, laurel wreath ties fall in small undulations (waves); reverse PONTIF MAXIM, Pax (or Livia as Pax) seated right on chair with decorated legs, a single line below, long scepter vertical behind in her right, branch in left, feet on footstool. Weight 7.709 gram, maximum diameter 19 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SH30618. Fig. 2. Denarius of Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) of the Forum Fire Hoard with a wavy fire damaged, bent flan. Minted 134-138 CE in Rome. Obverse HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P, bare head right; reverse MONETA AVG, Moneta standing left holding scales and cornucopia; Weight 3.378 gram, maximum diameter 16.7 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. RS15011. Fig. 3. Two denarii of Elagabalus (218-222 CE) and one Severus Alexander(222-235 CE), uncleaned as found in a sealed container with green patina. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT36716.Regarding deposition circumstances, the Boscoreale hoard is a famous example. The hoard of more then thousand golden aurei was discovered in 1895 in a villa close to Pompeii. The owner buried the hoard in 79 CE in a water cistern in the wine cellar, fearing the warning sound of the Vesuvius shortly before the eruption. The intense heat of the eruption gave the coins the famous deep reddish Boscoreale patina. Unfortunately, the hoard was dispersed without being catalogued. Thanks to the typical patina, some coins are still known and incidentally offered for sale (fig 1). Another example is a burned hoard of mainly denarii, concealed around 225 CE and described in a separate NumisWiki article (the Forum Fire Hoard). The coins were found in an amalgamation: melted coins and black silver oxide on the outside formed a solid black ball. Inside the coins were still in nice condition, however, most are wavy and somewhat brittle due to the heat of the fire. About 3/4 of the 92 catalogued coins show clear traces of the fire, in many cases with a bent flan (fig 2). Another example with some indication of the burial are three denarii from the same period with a green hoard container patina (fig 3.). In most cases, for hoards from the trade, the only link to the burial circumstances are political circumstances related to the minting period of the youngest coin. As the examples show, this offers a numismatic history, here presented in a chronological sequence. Hoards Tell the StoryFig 4. The latest coin of Antiochus XII (87-84 BCE) of the Galilee hoard, a bronze hemichalkon minted in Damascus. Obverse diademed, bearded head of Antiochos XII right; reverse BASILEWS ANTIOC DIONUSO EPIFANOUS FILOPATOROS KALLINIKOU, Nike walking right, wreath in extended right, palm frond over shoulder in left, monogram in exergue. Weight 3.345 gram, maximum diameter 16.9 mm. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. GB46336.Political unrest is an important reason for the existence of coin hoards. At the first place, it is an extra reason to bury the coins. And in addition, the owner may get killed and as a result not being able to recollect the hoard. For the same reason, a lost purse will not be searched after by the owner. A possible example is the Galilee hoard buried end 84 BCE or a little later, reported to be found North of lake Galilee, what fits the surrounding location of the nine mints represented in the hoard. The hoard was probably buried following the unrest after the defeat of Antiochus XII, the last strong Seleucid ruler. There were 131 bronze coins, of which 118 could be identified by Alex Malloy who acquired the hoard in 1989. The coins represent the leaders who played a role in the struggle. There were coins minted for Antiochus XII Dionysus (c. 87 – 84 BCE) who ruled the last Seleucid realm in and around Damascus. His youngest hoard coin was minted late 84 BCE in Damascus just before he was killed in a fight against the Nabataeans, rulers from current Jordan who shortly after captured Damascus. One coin of Aretas III (87 – 62 BCE) is minted in Damascus right after the city was captured. Antiochus XII also did fight against the Judean kingdom in the south, and eight prutot of their ruler Alexander Jannaeus (103 – 76 BCE) minted in Jerusalem are present in the hoard. In addition, coins of earlier rulers are present like 27 coins of Demetrius III Eucaerus (96 – 87 BCE), 8 coins of Antiochus VII Grypus (125-96 BCE) and some even older coins of Demetrius II Nikator (136-129 BCE), Antiochus VII Sidetes (138-129 BCE) and Demetrius I Soter (162- 150 BCE). The oldest coins of Antiochus III the Great (223 – 187 BCE) minted in Antioch were more than a century old when the hoard was buried. The reported find spot is about half way of the two major mints (64% of the hoard) of Damascus and Akko, the harbor on the shore of the Mediterranean see. On the same shore are mints represented in Tyre, Biblos, Sidon (all current Lebanon) and Seleucia (Syrian coast). In addition, there are coins from Damascus, Antioch, Jerusalem and the Nabataean capital Petra. The total monetary value of the 131 coins was relatively small. Fig 5. A sample of 21 lead tesserae of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) of a somewhat larger hoard of more then thirty of such coins (check). All of Hendin type 1155. Obverse text BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), anchor upside-down inside circle; reverse Aramaic inscription, King Alexander, border of dots. In most cases, the reverse is fully worn. Offered by Forum Ancient Coins nr. JD11176 (see also LT36982, LT3567?)The Jewish leader Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) mentioned above, minted around 80 BCE rare lead tokens (tesserae). They were issued to the poor to be redeemed for food and other commodities, mirroring the Roman distribution system. Alexander in this way hoped to gain support in his political struggle. These tesserae were for a long time very rare and not very well known. Thanks to some recent hoards, the knowledge of these interesting items has improved. Some have a dessert patina as the example shown of a group of lead tesserae from the same source (fig 5). The obverse shows in a circle an anchor upside down as hanging on the side of a boat, with around in Greek the legend BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (Basileus Alexandrou = of King Alexander). The anchor became an important symbol after Alexander Jannaeus conquered some of the coastal cities. The reverse, in many cases blank now, originally contained the Aramaic text ‘King Alexander’ in three lines. Fig 6. A group of 60 widow mites with a common shining green, pickled patina indicating the provenance of the same hoard. Introduced by Alexander Jannaeus around 78 BCE. Obverse star of eight rays surrounded by diadem, crude barbaric style; reverse BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (barbaric and blundered), anchor upside-down in circle. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins lot nr. LT56705.In the same period, around 78 BCE, Alexander Jannaeus (103 – 76 BCE) started in Jerusalem to mint very small coins, the leptons. They became known as the ‘widow mites’ because these small coins may have been referred to in the New Testament (the story of the poor widow and here small money gift to the temple, Mark 12:41). The obverse legend refers to year 25 of the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, meaning they were minted around 78 BCE. Many are found in large hoards (fig 6). Based on the high volumes, it has been suggested that minting continued during the reign of his wife and successor Salome Alexandra (76-67 BCE). She did not mint coins in her own name, so continuation of the coins of her husband makes sense. It could explain the large volumes, making this small coin still a very important part of the small change in the first century CE, explaining why many of these coins are quite worn. The obverse shows a star of eight rays surrounded by a diadem. The crude Aramaic obverse legend refers to King Alexander and year 25. The crude reverse like the tesserae shows an anchor upside down, again with the name of the king and sometimes with the year (L) 25 (KE) near the anchor points. Many have irregular flans and in many times are off centered, sign of large volume minting. Also the old ‘bridges’ of the casted row of flans are still clearly visible at one or two sides. They still circulated in the first century CE and even occasionally in the 4th century as shown by excavations. Fig 7. A Group of 20 Republican denarii, all of the common type with a bust on the obverse and a car with horses on the reverse, and the name of the moneyer, in this case for example D. Unius Silanus (D. SILANVS), C. Licinius LF Macer (C. LICINIVS LF MACER) and twice M. Lucilis Rufus (M. LVCILI RVF), in some cases ROMA below. This type was minted until 41 BCE. The three moneyers mentioned worked between 101 and 84 BCE. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT54755. Fig. 8. A local imitation of a denarius of Tiberius from a coin hoard form India. On the obverse blundered reading of CAESAR DVI AVG F AVGVSTVS as TILLFSLRIVIAVCFAVGVSTVS. Reverse blundered reading of PONTIF MAXIM as ONIIF MANIM. Weight 3.008 gram, max diameter 18.2 mm, die-axis 180, sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SH20732. The bronze coin hoards were of much lower value than most of the Republican silver hoards of denarii (fig 7). These silver hoards are very important for the dating of the moneyers who worked in specific years. For the hoard coins shown in fig 7 for example, moneyer Lucilius worked in 101 BCE, Silanus in 91 BCE and Licinius Macer in 84 BCE. Thanks to hoard evidence, combined with sequences deducted from overstrikes, it is possible to date the introduction of the denarius to around 211 BCE. During the first century BCE, the denarius was the main high value hoard coin. Sulla introduced the golden aureus around 85 BCE, but only Caesar started to mint some larger volumes. The denarius was also used for long distance trade, even outside the empire. An interesting example is a coin hoard from India described in a separate NumisWiki article (Triton X Hoard). Among the 175 Roman denarii of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) and Tiberius (14 – 17 CE) the hoard contained some local imitations (fig 8). The Roman denarii were in India appreciated for their high silver content. The Roman looks of the coins functioning as a kind of quality stamp.
Fig 12. Lot of 81 small bronze coins, part of a hoard found at Cyprus. Selected from a hoard of more than 250 coins, these 81 coins are all the same type. Fair to Fine and minted around 35 BCE in the mint of Paphos. Obverse laureate head of Zeus; reverse statue of Zeus Salaminos standing, holding stalks of grain, star above. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins lot nr. LT38166. Also lot nr. LT33637 (7 coins), LT33638 (20 coins), LT38164 (80 coins), LT53846 (10 coins), LT57290 (14 coins), GB33634 (20 coins) and coins sold single.Another interesting coin hoard was found on the isle of Cyprus (fig 12). The hoard may be connected to the unrest around the defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium in September 31 BCE. Cyprus was ruled by Cleopatra until 31 BC when the Romans took over. More than 250 small copper coins seem to have been found together and are dated between 50 and 30 BCE. They have been produced in the mint of Paphos, the later Roman capital of the isle. As noted in a separate NumisWiki article about misstrikes, the hoard contained some blank flans. There is some debate about the names of the small coins. The hoard contained amongst others very small bronze coins of about 0.8 gram and only 8 mm in diameter. This may be the chalkon mentioned in old sources, the smallest unit of the Ptolemaic kingdom. On the obverse there is a bust of Isis and on the reverse an eagle or a double cornucopia flanked by ribbons. For both types, there is a reference to King Ptolemy: PTOLEMAIOU - BASILEWS. The same coins are also minted with about the double weight and diameter of around 12 mm, what may have been the dichalkon (double chalkon) Of these coins, there also is a type with on the obverse the laureate head of Zeus to the right, and a reverse with Zeus Salaminos standing, holding a grain ear and a torch, with a star above. Kreuzer has suggested that the bust of Isis refers to the famous queen Cleopatra (Cleopatra VIII), but this identification is matter of debate. Fig. 13 Six coins of the Temple Tax Hoard. Described in a separate NumisWiki article. Another important moment for the burial of coin hoards is the unrest during the 60s of the first century CE. Already in 66 CE the Jewish revolt started and continued until 73 CE. And in 68 CE Nero was forced to commit suicide. After, four emperors reigned in about one year. The Jewish War resulted in many local coin hoards. Possibly the Temple Tax Hoard was buried during this period (fig 13). This hoard consisted of 92 silver half shekels and 3 full shekels and has been described in a separate NumisWiki article by Marian and Sermarini. Although the youngest dated coin was minted in 55/57 CE, it is very well possible that the hoard was buried during the Jewish War about ten years later. Dated coins of the last decade are very rare and most coins of the hoard are worn, also the youngest dated one. As the half shekel was used to pay the temple tax, the hoard may be related to the annual payment of the temple tax. Fig 14. Eight cleaned billion tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard, minted in Alexandria in several different years like LIA (year 11 = 64/65 CE), LIB (year 12 = 65/66 CE), LIG (year 13 = 66/67 CE) and L ID (year 14, = 67/78 CE). Three reverse with eagle, two reverses with Tiberius and three reverse with bust of a Greek deity issued to commemorate Nero's sojourn in Greece in 67 - 68 A.D. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. LT28817. Fig 15. Seventeen billion tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard, all minted in the peak year 12 (65/66 CE) minted in Alexandria. Obverse NERW KLAU KAIS SEB GER, radiate bust of Nero right, wearing aegis; reverse AUTO-KRA, bust of Alexandria right, wearing elephant head headdress, L IB (year 12) Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SP22458. Fig 16. Ten tetradrachms of Nero (54-68 CE) of a hoard with coins from Claudius to Vespasian (45-70 CE), these ten coins all minted in year 11 (64/65 CE) in Alexandria. Obverse NERW KLAU KAIS SEB GER, radiate bust of Nero right, wearing aegis; reverse AUTO-KRA, eagle standing left, palm over shoulder, L IA (year 11) right, sometimes with simpulum behind. Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr. SP22459. About 60 other coins with the same patina sold individually nr. RX 22938-RX23003.The Civil War after the dead of Nero in June 68 CE impacted large parts of the empire, also at places where no direct fights occurred. An example is Roman Egypt, a province which from numismatic perspective acted almost as an autonomous monetary region, a closed currency system. The tetradrachms minted in Alexandria circulated mainly within Egypt and most known hoards are found within the borders of this country. Christiansen, who described the Egyptian hoards from the 1-3rd century CE, concluded that most hoards were related to a few moments of political unrest. The first hoard period was 68-69 CE. Although there was no war in Egypt, it was an important home base for Vespasian, the later emperor. Apparently people felt the need to burry money. And quite some people like soldiers left Egypt to participate in the war for Vespasian, and never returned to retrieve their hoard. Just before, Nero minted a large volume of tetradrachms from 63 CE onwards, with a production peak in 65/66 CE (year 12). As a result, Egyptian coin hoards related to the Civil War of 68-69 CE, contain only or for a large part tetradrachms of Nero. A probably example is a lot of eight cleaned tetradrachms of Nero minted in Alexandria (fig 14). Another example is a group of 17 tetradrachms, all of the peak year 12 (fig 15). A hoard with a typical grey patina with in many cases light pickled corrosion is typical for these hoards (fig 16). About 70 coins of this hoard are catalogued and most are tetradrachms of Nero. One coin is an older tetradrachm of Claudius minted in year 6 (45-46 CE). And about ten coins are minted during the Civil War by Galba and Vespasian. It is a typical pattern for Egyptian hoards form this period.
In the next decades, fights related to the extension of the Roman Empire continued. An example is the Balkan. Very worn bronze coins were countermarked to continue their lives. Interesting is a small group of eleven Flavian bronze coins countermarked with the letter B and the letters TOM (fig 17). The last combination is interpreted as the abbreviation of Tomis, the Roman city at Constanta in Romania on the Black Sea shore
Fig 19 Four Republican misstrikes (brockages), from the Moesia hoard buried around 107 CE in the Balkan. Denarii of Cn. Cornelius Blasio Cn.f., 112 - 111 BCE (#1, 3.34 gram, 18.1 mm), Lucius Memmius c. 109 - 108 BCE (#2, 3.40 gram, 19.1 mm), L. Thorius Balbus, 105 BCE (#3, 3.00 gram, 18.5 mm) and Octavian, 21-31 BCE (#4, 3.48 gram, 19.3 mm). Sold by Forum Ancient Coins nr RR08296 (#1), RR08295 (#2), RR08300 (#3) and RR08318 (#4).
The next import reform of the denarius is reflected in another hoard. The monetary reform of Septimius Severus in 194/195 CE started a process of accelerated debasement. The weight was temporarily reduced in the period 194-196 CE, reflected in a smaller size of the flans as the Forum Fire Hoard illustrates, discussed in a separate Numiswiki article (fig 2). The average maximum diameter of the 89 denarii in the Forum Fire Hoard (besides the 3 antoninianii) was 18.64 mm. The maximum diameter for the two hoard denarii of Septimius Severus minted between 194-196 CE was 7 to 11% less: 17.3 and 16.5 mm. The diameter was increased again after 196 CE. However the flans became thinner and the silver content was further reduced from still close to 80% in the early days of Septimius Severus to about 56.5% in his last years, meaning that the weight of the amount of silver in a denarius decreased about 1/4th. As a result, older coins were hoarded and the new coins of Septimius Severus quickly started to dominate the coin circulation. A lot of about 150 denarii may reflect this situation at the end of the second century CE (fig 24). The lot contains mainly denarii minted between 193-198 CE.
Fig 26. The cover photo of the Antioch Hoard of Gallienus, catalogue of Alex Malloy (1992). A large part of the hoard was later sold by Forum Ancient Coins.
This dominant role of the antoninianus is also reflected in the Gallienus Hoard of Antioch described in a separate NumisWiki article (fig 26). This hoard of 539 antoniniani was buried in 274 CE or shortly after. It most probably was a composite hoard buried in the neighborhood of Antioch. The composition of the first part of the hoard started around 253 CE in Viminacium, a town close to Kostolac in Serbia, and continued until about 257-260 CE. Around that time, the money moved to the region of Antioch where the accumulation continued. Already the first part collected around 253-260 CE consisted of antoniniani only. Clearly, at that time, most denarii were forced out of circulation. The hoard offered interesting information about the minting of regional antoniniani in a mint close to Antioch. The closing date of 274 CE was related to the political unrest that threatened the Roman Empire. Another product of this landmark in Roman history is the Braithwell hoard of 1,331 antoniniani unearthed in 2002 in the UK. An Antoninianus of Gallienus (253-268 CE) of this hoard shows how this coin became a bronze core with a very thin layer silver (fig 27). The silver content was reduced to about 5% compared to around 40% in the middle of the third century CE. Two younger antoniniani of the Romano Gallic emperors Victorinus (269-271 CE) and Tetricus (271-273 CE) show how the antoninianus deteriorated further to a silver content below 2.5% (fig 28). The Roman emperor Aurelian (270 – 275 CE) at first stage continued to mint weak antoniniani of about 2.5% silver and an average weight of about 2.8 gram. His first aim was reuniting the Roman Empire. He faced the independent part in the west (Romano Gallic Empire) and also an independent part in the east. He first gained control over the eastern part and next in 274 CE defeated Tetricus and his son in the west. Aurelian was proclaimed Restitutor Orbis (restorer of the world) and launched his monetary reform in 274 CE. He introduced a new improved antoninianus, by some authors called ‘Aurelianus’: a coin of about 3.85 gram and about 4% silver content. It has been suggested that the new aimed silver content is indicated with the number XXI on the reverse (KA = 21 in Greek versions): XX parts bronze versus I part silver: a silver content of 1/21st (4.75%).
In 294 CE, the silver argenteus was introduced. This silver laureate coin was an imitation of the old denarius. As other coins at that time hardly contained any silver, these new silver coins were quickly hoarded as the Sisak hoard illustrates. This hoard was discovered in 1953 in Siscia (Sisak in Serbia) together with silver vessels. Unfortunately, this very important hoard was dispersed before being catalogued. Until this find, the silver coins of this period were very rare and the hoard contained one single type. All hoard coins show the bust of one of the four co-rulers (tetrarchs) on the obverse and the praetorian camp on the reverse (fig 35). And the patina of the hoard coins was quite characteristic with a special rainbow iridescent toning. As a result, Jelocnik succeeded in reconstructing a large part of the hoard. In 1961 he published a catalogue of 1415 of the hoard coins (142 with photos’), estimated to be about 2/3rd of the total hoard. The hoard analysis is still the standard work for this numismatically important silver coin, summarized in RIC volume VI. About 1/3th (37.7%) of the hoard coins was minted in Siscia, another 1/3th (37.4%) was minted in Rome and close to 1/4th in Ticinum (Pavia in Italy). For the rest, a few coins were minted in Heraclea (1%) and Trier (0.3%). The hoard included one ancient imitation. Based on the hoard pattern, Jelocnik concluded the hoard was concealed around 295/296 CE. The coins were very well preserved and only a few showed signs of wear. Of the four coins in fig 33 the average weight is 3.1 gram in a range of 2.969 to 3.417 gram. The average maximum diameter is 18.8 mm, three coins in a small range of 18.1 – 18.5 mm and one much larger with 20.5 mm at a normal weight of 3.007 gram. The coins are beautiful and nicely reflect the failed attempt to revive the old denarius.
The reign of the tetrarchs was a political success. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian retired voluntary, an unique development. The next period would become less stable after the successors started a fight for the power in 306 CE. In 306 CE Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in Rome. He would be finally defeated by Constantine the Great in 312 CE. This period of unrest generated again many coin hoards. In Egypt, for example, Lucius Domitius Alexander, also known as Alexander Tyrannus, declared himself emperor in 308 CE while he was praetorian prefect in Africa. When he stopped the corn supply to Italy, emperor Maxentius (306-312 CE) decided to act and send an army. He took control in 311 CE and usurper Alexander was killed. A hoard of tetradrachms minted in Alexandria and possibly buried around 310 CE may be related to this period of political unrest (fig 36).
During the reform of 294 CE, next to the silver argenteus of the Sisak hoard, also a large bronze coin was introduced. This was the follis of about 10 gram, with about 3% silver and now a laureate head and not a radiate. Started as a heavy coin of about 10 gram, the weight was quickly reduced after 305 CE to just over 3 gram around 317 CE. Around 317 CE again many so called nummi-hoards were buried, this time in reaction to a further deterioration of the monetary system (fig 37). Concluding RemarksIn this way, the coin hoards provide an interesting overview of the development of the monetary system from the first century BCE until the 4th century CE. It is interesting to notice that especially in the UK the number of catalogued coin hoards has increased last decades. The government developed a registration system that motivates finders to report their find and get the coins catalogued before they are dispersed in trade. An example is the Braithwell hoard mentioned in this overview, all coins having reference numbers of the primary catalogue (fig 27-28). Museums get the opportunity to acquire some characteristic examples for future research. As a result, the finder is still rewarded and at the same time important historical information is recorded. For most other countries the description of such hoards depends on the willingness of dealers to spend time on an overall description. As the examples illustrate, this is of great historical interest. There are many more hoard stories to tell. Appendix: Hoards mentioned in this article, described in other NumisWiki articles- The - Braithwell Hoard by Antony Wilson - Antioch Hoard of Gallienus: by A. Malloy, D. W. Sorenson and W. Percical - The Antioch and Braithwell Hoards: a Comparison by Tom Buijtendorp - Triton X Hoard by Tom Buijtendorp - Forum Fire Hoard by Tom Buijtendorp - Hoard coins published in Forum Ancient Coins website catalog: |